At C2 you see grammar not as isolated rules but as the structural device that holds texts together — the cohesive web that makes a paragraph more than a list of sentences.
Reference
pointing back (anaphora) or forward (cataphora) to other elements
Substitution
replacing repeated elements with one/ones/so/do
Ellipsis
omitting elements clear from context
Conjunction
logical and temporal connections
Lexical chains
synonyms and related terms maintaining topic
Anaphora and cataphora
Anaphora (pointing back)
The minister resigned. She made the decision quickly. (she = the minister)
Demonstrative reference
Sales rose sharply. This surprised everyone.
Summary noun
Prices rose then fell. This pattern repeated all year.
Cataphora (pointing forward)
This is the answer: hard work pays off.
Cataphoric "it"
It surprised everyone — that she had won.
Exophora (external reference)
Look at that! (something in the immediate context)
Substitution patterns
Nominal: one / ones
I want the red car, not the blue one.
Verbal: do / do so
She paints, and so does he. / He did so reluctantly.
Clausal: so / not
Is she coming? I think so. / I'm afraid not.
Modal substitution
She might leave. If so, we'll follow.
"do so" is more formal than "do it" — used in academic and journalistic writing.
Ellipsis — what's omitted vs implied
Verbal ellipsis
She has finished, but I haven't [finished].
To-infinitive ellipsis
I wanted to leave but didn't have to [leave].
Nominal ellipsis
Some prefer tea, others [prefer] coffee.
Clausal ellipsis (Q&A)
Who's coming? — Mary [is coming].
Coordination ellipsis
She bought apples and [she bought] oranges.
Conjunctive adverbs as cohesion markers
Addition
furthermore, moreover, in addition, what's more, besides
Contrast
however, nevertheless, nonetheless, conversely, on the contrary
Cause / result
therefore, consequently, thus, hence, accordingly
Sequence
firstly, subsequently, ultimately, in turn, simultaneously
Restatement
that is, in other words, namely, specifically
Summary
in conclusion, in summary, all in all, on balance
Common mistakes
The car was old. The car needed repairs. The car was sold.
→
The car was old. It needed repairs. Eventually, it was sold.
use pronoun reference + conjunction
I have a red car and a blue.
→
I have a red car and a blue one.
need substitute "one"
A: Will it rain? B: I think.
→
B: I think so.
clausal substitution requires "so"
The minister resigned. The minister made the decision quickly.
→
The minister resigned. She made the decision quickly.