| Form | Example | |
|---|---|---|
| Reference | anaphora (back) · cataphora (forward) · exophora (external) | she / this pattern / it surprised |
| Substitution | one/ones · do/do so · so/not | the blue one · I think so |
| Ellipsis | verbal · to-inf · nominal · clausal | she has [finished] / didn't have to |
| Conjunction | addition · contrast · cause · sequence · summary | moreover, however, therefore |